RECENT RESEARCH ON SERVICE LEARNING: ABSTRACTS (2000)

The following abstracts represent some of the recent research in the field of service-learning. They correlate to three primary area of study: Civic Engagement, Personal/Social Development and Academic Achievement. An abstract, summary of methods used, results pertaining to area of study and keywords are given for each article. These works build on the research outlined in Billig's May 2000 Phi Delta Kappan article.

K-12 Service Learning : Civic Engagement Research References

Morgan, W., & Streb, M. (March, 2001). Building citizenship: How student voice in service-learning develops civic values. Social Science Quarterly, 82(1), 155-169.
(New Abstract 2/25/02!)

Abstract:
Examines the impact of service-learning programs on students' self-concept, political engagement, and tolerance towards groups with whom they do not normally interact, for example, the elderly and disabled. Discusses whether service-learning projects are more effective when students have a voice in the design and implementation of the projects.

Method:
Pre- and post-test surveys were given to more than 200 high school students, across grade levels, who participated in service-learning projects in ten different schools. The study was conducted during the 1997-1998 school year by the Indiana Department of Education. Students were asked to respond to questions using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1, disagree strongly, to 5, agree strongly. Huber regression was used to assess the impact of student voice in the service-learning project on six dependent variables related to self-concept, political engagement, and tolerance. These variables were: efficacy, personal competence, political assertiveness, social action, attitudes toward the elderly, and attitudes toward the disabled.

Findings Related to Civic Engagement:
Student voice in service-learning projects is positively correlated with improved self-concept, political engagement, and tolerance. On each of the six dependent variables, the results were statistically significant at the .01 level. Student's efficacy increased .34 points on the 5-point Likert scale for each one-unit increase in the level of student voice, and personal competence increased by almost .50 points. As the level of student voice in the service-learning project increased one point, political attentiveness increased by an average of .37 points and the desire to become more politically active increased by .39 points. Tolerance measures were also notable. As student voice increased, they were more likely to agree that they could learn from and work with the elderly as
(2)

well as believe those with disabilities can hold jobs (coefficients equal to .17 and .25, respectively).

As this study showed, service-learning projects are more effective when students have responsibility for and decision making power in the design and implementation of the projects. As the level of student empowerment, or "voice," increases, so does students' political engagement, desire to be more socially active, and respect for those who are different from them. Overall, the study demonstrated that service-learning projects with student leadership can help make students better citizens.

Keywords:
Civic Attitudes and Perceptions
Civic Engagement
Civic Knowledge
Self-Concept
Student Voice/Leadership
Tolerance

Authors suggest that additional research is needed on the causal relationship between service-learning and attitudes in youth. For example, why does student political engagement increase as a result of involvement in service-learning projects?

Morgan, W. & Streb, M. (undated). First do no harm: Student ownership and service-learning. IN: Indiana University, Center for Participation and Citizenship.

Abstract:
Presents a study "to evaluate the effectiveness of service-learning as a pedagogical tool in improving students' academic performance as well as making them better citizens"

Method:
The sample included 220 high school students from 19 different classrooms in 10 schools. The study was conducted during the 1997-98 school year in five states (Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and Kentucky). Surveys were administered to students before and after completing their service project.

Findings Related to Civic Engagement:
The impact of service-learning on seven civic education variables (political attentiveness, social action, social networks, hours participating in out-of-school activities, attitudes toward the elderly, attitudes toward the disabled, and efficacy) was explored. The overall differences between pre- and post-test survey responses were very small. Student voice (i.e., the degree to which students: had real responsibilities, had challenging tasks; helped plan the project; and, made important decisions) was a significant and positive predictor of both academic and civic education outcomes.

Keywords:
Civic Engagement
Civic Knowledge
Civic Behavior
Civic Attitudes and Perceptions

Westheimer, J., & Kahne, J. (2000). Report to the Surdna Board.--D.V.I. New York: Surdna Foundation.

Abstract:
Presents data from the evaluation of the Surdna Foundation's Democratic Values Initiative (DVI). DVI was designed to support programs aiming to promote democratic values and citizenship for children, youth, and college students. DVI ran from Summer 1997 to Summer 1999, hosting three annual August retreats involving two to three representatives from each participating organization.

Methods:
Evaluators visited each of 10 sites twice (once each academic year) and conducted interviews and observations. Pre/post surveys were also administered at the beginning and end of each program cycle (which varied by organization; most organizations completed two cycles of pre-post surveys).

Findings Related to Civic Engagement:

• Students' sense of efficacy was positively related to commitment to civic involvement
• Establishment of supportive communities appears to support and sustain civic involvement
• Exposure to role models, including non-famous ones, was beneficial
• Opportunities for critical social analysis (e.g., understanding historical and contemporary efforts at social change) led to new understandings and insights and motivated students
• Programs where students augment their sense of knowledge were also those where students' sense of agency and civic commitments grew the most
• Relationships between students and their constituents were not always deep, but often succeeding in addressing notions of the 'other,' often referred to in service learning discourse
• Several programs assumed that teaching in a democratic way supports education about the democratic process; democratic teaching strategies had both positive and negative effects
• Although results varied by site, pre- and post-test surveys indicated a range of positive effects and far fewer negative effects

Keywords:
Civic Engagement
Civic Knowledge
Civic Attitudes and Perceptions

Authors offer a challenge to educators to question what students are learning through their community service experience and whether or not the lessons learned have systemic impact and solutions on the problem or open doors for later life time involvement.

Yates, M. (1999). Community service and political-moral discussions among adolescents: A study of mandatory school-based program in the United States. In J. Youniss & M. Yates (Eds.), Roots of Civic Identity: International Perspectives on Community Service and Activism in Youth (16-31). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Abstract:
Presents a case study of high school students who, as part of a year-long course in social justice, worked at an inner-city soup kitchen for the homeless. Students were required to serve at the shelter at least four times, for a minimum of 20 hours.

Methods:
The sample included [sample size not provided] mostly African-American 11th grade students form low- and middle-income families at a Washington DC area school. A total of forty focus groups (with 10-15 students) were held on four occasions, each for 50 minutes. Transcripts of the discussions were coded for one of four topics: stereotypes, Black identify, moral responsibility, political agency. Findings from focus groups were cross-validated using findings from student service essays and follow-up alumni interviews.

Findings Related to Civic Engagement:
"The discussions illustrate students' engagement in political-moral issues and reflect their engagement in two ways: 1) the topics recurred across focus groups and on multiple occasions (at least 10 times); and 2) students addressed these themes in some of their complexity and contradiction, by taking into consideration several perspectives and drawing upon the sources of personal experience, opinions of family and friends, and information from the classroom and the media" (p. 23).

For example, students explained their stereotypes of homeless people, how these stereotypes were challenged, and reflected on their experiences, discussing explanations of what they observed. Students also discussed issues of moral responsibility, such as the question of whether one should distinguish between homeless people who deserve help and those who do not. Their discussions also turned to the origins of homelessness and their own ability to affect change through political processes.

Keywords:
Civic Engagement
Civic Knowledge
Civic Attitudes and Perceptions

K-12 Service-Learning: Personal/Social Development Research References

Andersen, S. (September, 1998). Service learning: A national strategy for youth development. The Communication Network.

Abstract:
Policy recommendations and rationale regarding service learning are made. Examples of service learning are given and an extensive discussion of the literature on the impact of service learning is included. The issue of whether or not service learning should be mandatory is also included. Finally, a national campaign to promote service learning is offered.

Method:
A review article.

Findings Related to Personal/Social Development:

• Service learning facilitates character education (Institute for global ethics, 1996; see also Berman, et al., 1997; Boston, 1998) as well as civic education (Boston, 1997; Clark 1993; Brandell & Hinck, 1997; Youniss & Yates, 1997).
• Persuasive research findings have amassed in Service learning from three major, national studies (Astin & Sax, 1998; Eyler, Giles, & Braxton, 1997; Melchior; see also previous reviews Alt & Medrich, 1994; Conrad & Hedin, 1982; Scales & Blyth, 1997), which show, along with other studies, that service-learning is associated with significant pre-test/post-test increases in:
  • Civic engagement
  • The ethic of service
  • Civic attitudes
  • Social connection
  • Acceptance of diversity
  • Competence/self-esteem
  • Protection against risky behavior
  • Academic achievement
  • Middle and high school service learning students showed enhanced civic efficacy or engagement in terms of their self-reports of community service leadership (Melchior, 1997).
  • 9th graders with behavioral problems who chose to continue to participate in service learning after an initial 10 week experience showed significant decreases in their self-reports of social alienation (Calabrese & Schumer, 1986).

Keywords:
Civic Engagement
Civic Attitudes
Social Connection
Acceptance of Diversity
Competence/Self-esteem
Resilience
Academic Achievement

Johnson, A. M. & Notah, D. J. (1999). Service learning: History, literature, and a pilot study of eighth graders. The Elementary School Journal, 99(5), 453-467.

Abstract:
This article describes the results of a pilot study conducted with 156 primarily Hispanic middle school students that investigates the effects of a service learning curriculum that was a part of both advisory and science classes. The study focused on the effect of service on self-esteem and personal responsibility. Qualitative data were collected using both the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Junior Index of Motivation Scale. For both instruments, student growth was observed. However, these gains were not statistically significant. Qualitative data (student reflective journals, a narrative essay, interviews, field notes, and observations) also showed that the curriculum had a positive effect on students' self esteem and responsibility. A review of the widely cited service learning literature and discussion of the status of recent litigation involving the performance of mandatory community service is included.

Method:
156 eighth graders were randomly assigned to either an advisory or science class. Students were required to complete a service project of their choice, working either alone or in small groups, during a 9-week period. Pretest and Posttest data on self-esteem and responsibility using the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Junior Index of Motivation Scale. Other data collected included daily reflective journals, a concluding narrative essay, student interviews, and field notes with student observations. Additionally, 17 students were randomly selected from the two classes for interviews.

Findings Related to Personal/Social Development:
Although the observed differences between the means on the two scales were in the hypothesized direction, none reached statistical significance.
Qualitative data support the authors' conclusion that students did indeed "grow" in self-esteem and responsibility.

Keywords:
Self-esteem
Social Responsibility

Kirby, Douglas. (2001, May). Emerging answers: Research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.

Abstract:
This updated research review examines evaluation research on programs to prevent teen pregnancy that shows programs are making a real difference in encouraging teens to remain abstinent or use contraception when they have sex. This new research helps to answer the question, "What can I do in my community to prevent teen pregnancy-what really works?" The research offers some emerging answers as to what an effective program looks like and summarizes what has and what has not worked in many communities.

Methods:
Examines over 250 primary prevention program evaluations. Evaluation studies had to meet certain scientific criteria to be included. Used publication in a peer reviewed journal as the primary qualification for inclusion in this study. Also relied on expanded set of methodological criteria. Criteria included been completed in 1980 or later, conducted in the US or Canada, targeted at adolescents of middle or high school age (12-18), employed experimental or quasi-experimental design, had sample size of at least 100 in combined treatment and control group, and measured impact on sexual or contraceptive behavior, pregnancy, or childbearing.

Defined service-learning as: "By definition, service-learning programs include (1) voluntary or unpaid service in the community (e.g., tutoring, working as a teacher's aide, working in nursing homes, or helping fix up parks and recreation areas) and (2) structured time for preparation and reflection before, during, and after service (e.g., group discussions, journal writing, or papers). Often the service is voluntary, but sometimes it is prearranged as part of a class. And often, but not always, the service is linked to academic instruction in the classroom."

Findings Related to Personal/Social Development:
"Service-learning programs may have the strongest evidence of any intervention that they reduce actual teen pregnancy rates while the youth are participating in the program. Among the programs with the best evidence of effectiveness are the Teen Outreach Program and Reach for Health service learning program. Although the research does not clearly indicate why service-learning is so successful, several possibilities seem plausible: participants develop relationships with program facilitators, they gain a sense of autonomy and feel more competent in their relationships with peers and adults, and they feel empowered by the knowledge that they can make a difference in the lives of others. All such factors, in turn, may help increase teenagers' motivation to avoid pregnancy. In addition, participating in supervised activities-especially after school-may simply reduce the opportunities teens have to engage in risky behavior, including unprotected sex."

Keywords:
Teen Pregnancy
Youth Development
Motivation
Reducing opportunities to engage in risky behavior,
Interpersonal relationships
Competence
Autonomy
Empowerment.

Muscott, H. et al. (1999, August). Teaching character education to students with behavioral and learning disabilities through mentoring relationships. Education and Treatment of Children, 22(3), 373-390

Abstract:
Despite nation-wide efforts to implement character education programs in schools, there is no research that specifically examines the effectiveness of these programs on students with behavioral and learning disabilities. SO (Service-Learning Opportunities) Prepared for Citizenship, an inclusive after school program, was designed to enhance the character development of elementary students by teaching specific character traits including: (1) responsibility and self-control; (2) cooperation and teamwork; and (3) respect and appreciation of diversity through language arts and other activities. The program relies on high school and college mentors to introduce the curriculum and perceptions of the program. Data gathered from in-depth ethnographic interviews of 19 students with behavioral and other learning and language disabilities were coded through domain analysis. Descriptive statistics are included. Results indicate that students with disabilities; (1) expressed responsibility for their actions; (2) responded to the ideas of cooperation and teamwork and respect and appreciation of diversity; (3) learned to make new friends; and (4) found learning about character to be fun and rewarding.

Methods:
The program met 9 times during the spring. Units of character education curriculum included responsibility and self-control, cooperation and teamwork, respect and appreciation of diversity were taught. Due to other circumstances the final sample included 26 students. Nineteen were identified as disabled or at risk for school failure and seven were non-disabled or gifted. (12 males and 7 females) (18 Caucasian and 1 African-American)

The program used multi-age cooperative learning teams in ewhich college and high school students co-mentor and co-teach the curriculum to the elementary and middle schook students. Multiple learning teams are arranged into PODS by grade level of the children. Each weekly session lasts 2 hours and follows a structured format. A half hour of guided reflection take place after every weekly session.

Study included focused interviews following guidelines set for ethnographic interviews by Spradley (1980). Interviews were coded independently by the ethnographic interviewer, the director of the program, and a graduate research assistant. Data was not formally triangulated. Mentors kept anecdotal records of learning and behavior outcomes using rubrics included in their lesson plans. Informal analysis supports of the anecdotal assessment data collected from these two sources supports the information gathered from the student interviews.

Findings Related to Personal/Social Development:

• 88 percent of the students said they learned something from the program. Nearly 50 percent said that they learned how to cooperate to solve problems and complete activities, get along with others and/or be part of a team though their experiences at SO Prepared for Citizenship.
• In terms of citizenship, the majority of students defined a "citizen leader" as someone who behaves, listens and helps others. Approximately 60 percent of the students identified themselves as "citizen leaders"
• 84 percent of the students who responded said they enjoyed having the older students on their team. In general, the students indicated that their mentors were teachers who helped them learn and make learning fun.
• Approximately 80 percent of the students indicated they would not cheat if they found a test with answers on the floor under the teacher's desk.
• 18 of the 19 students responded to the question on diversity. All 18 students indicated that they would befriend a new student f another race in their classroom.
• 95 percent of he students who responded indicated that they enjoyed the program.
• When asked if they would sign up for the program next year, 95 percent said yes.

Keywords:
Character Education
Character Development
Responsibility
Self-control
Cooperation
Teamwork
Respect
Appreciation
Respect for Diversity
Mentoring
Friendship

Rosenberg, S. L., McKeon, L. M., & Dinero, T. E. (1999). Positive peer solutions: One answer for the rejected student. -Phi Delta Kappan, 81, 114-118.

Abstract:
Positive Peer Groups (PPG) is a leadership training program that helps alienated and disengaged students bond to school via participation in school-oriented service activities stressing work, discipline, and responsibility. Students form affiliations with peers involved in the same efforts. Results in Ohio schools are encouraging.

Method:
This article describes the results of several research projects involving more than 1000 program participants and a large set of control subjects. The design was a pretest/posttest experimental design. Students were not randomly assigned to groups. This article is not a research article however. An article describing the research in detail could not be located.

Findings Related to Personal/Social Development:

• Students who experienced the program showed improved attitudes toward school.
• Students who participated in the program were proud of their own growth and maturity.
• Students who participated in the program showed more initiative than control students.
• Teachers reported that students in the program started behaving in ways that reflected a positive social awareness.
• Students in the program became more cooperative and tolerant of individual differences.
• Students in the program learned to work together as a team. They learned to depend upon each other and to be depended upon.
• They showed increased social responsibility.

Keywords:
Maturity
Initiative
Social Awareness
Tolerance of Individual Differences
Social Responsibility

Scales, P. C., Blyth, D. A., Berkas, T. H., & Kielsmeier, J. C. (2000). The effects of service-learning on middle school students' social responsibility and academic success. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20, 332-358.

Abstract:
The effects of service-learning on social responsibility and academic success were investigated among a large, racially and socioeconomically diverse sample of students in grades 6 through 8 in three middle schools. Over the school year, service-learning students maintained their concern for others' social welfare, whereas control students declined on those concerns. Service-learning students, especially girls, also declined significantly less than did controls in their frequency of talking with parents about school. Compared with other students, students with substantial hours of service-learning, a lot of reflection, and a high degree of motivation attributed to service-learning, significantly increased their belief in the efficacy of their helping behaviors, maintained their pursuit of better grades and their perception that school provided personal development opportunities, and decreased less in their commitment to classwork. The results indicate that service-learning can positively affect students' social responsibility and academic success.

Method:
29 middle schools with "quality service-learning programs" were identified. Quality of the service-learning program was determined using a screening checklist. Students at these schools were randomly assigned to teams. Because of the random assignment, teams were balanced in terms of gender, ethnicity, and academic performance. The schools decided which teams would be service-learning teams and which teams would be control teams. This assignment was not random. Some self-selection occurred (e.g., "Some teams were more comfortable forgoing service-learning, and in most cases they became the control teams." p.340).

1153 6th-8th grade students participated in the study. Approximately half of these students participated in service-learning. A survey that included measures of social responsibility, personal development opportunities, parent involvement in school, commitment to classwork, engagement with school, perceived scholastic competence, intellectual achievement responsibility, evaluation and mastery goals, academic success, and conduct was administered at the beginning and end of the school year.

Findings Related to Personal/Social Development:

• Controlling for pretest differences, students who participated in service-learning showed greater concern for others' welfare on the posttest than control students who had never participated in service-learning. The service-learning students maintained their level of concern for others' welfare over the course of the school year, while control students declined over time.
• Students who did more than 31 hours of service-learning had significantly higher posttest scores on their perceived efficacy in helping others than all other students.
• Service-learning students who did a lot of reflection were more likely than all other students, except service-learning students with less reflection, to perceive their schools as places that offered personal development opportunities.
• Service-learning students who agreed that participation in service-learning had made them more interested in their other classes (26% of the sample) scored higher than all students, except service-learning students with less motivation, on their concern for others' welfare and their perceived efficacy in helping others.

Keywords:
Personal Development
Concern for Others' Welfare
Personal Responsibility
Efficacy

Stukas, A. A., Clary, G. E., & Snyder, M. (1999) Service learning: Who benefits and why. Social Policy Report, 8 (4), 1-22.

Abstract:
Extensive review of the service learning literature on key benefits for students, institutions, and communities. For student level benefits, self-enhancement, understanding of the self and world, value expression, career development, social expectations, and protection are addressed.

Method:
Review article.

Findings Related to Personal/Social Development:

• Service learning can impact students' personal development in areas such as personal efficacy, self esteem, and confidence (e.g., Giles & Eyler, 1994a, 1998; Williams, 1991; Yates & Youniss, 1996).
• Service learning has been shown to improve students' moral reasoning (Conrad & Hedin, 1981, 1982), problem solving (e.g., Eyler, Root, & Giles, 1998) and empathetic understanding (Yogev & Ronen, 1982).
• Service learning can influence students' undertsanding of attitudes toward diverse groups in society (Blyth et al., 1997; Yates & Youniss, 1996).
• Students who engage in service learning have frequently been demonstarted to show increases in personal and social responsibility (e.g., Conrad & Hedin, 1981, 1982; Hamilton & Fenzel, 1988; Markus et al., 1993; Sax & Astin, 1997) and altruistic motivation (Yogev & Ronen, 1982).

Keywords:
Self Efficacy
Self Esteem
Confidence
Problem Solving
Moral Reasoning
Diversity
Responsibility

K-12 Service Learning: Academic Achievement Research Reference

Melchior, A. & Bailis, L.N. Impact of service-learning on civic attitudes and behaviors of middle and high school youth: Findings from three national evaluations. In A. Furco & S. Billig (Eds.), Advances in Service-Learning Research: Volume 1: The Essence of the Pedagogy

Abstract:
Summarizes and discusses findings from three major evaluations of service-learning initiatives: Serve-America, Learn and Serve, and Active Citizenship Today (ACT).

Methods:
Each program's evaluation contained pre-/posttests of program participants and comparison groups from a sample of programs across the country. Data was gathered over several years. ACT also used an open-ended "problem solving exercise" one year. Areas of study included: social skills, community involvement, service/civic leadership, acceptance of diversity, communication skills, involvement in community service, and hours of service work.

Findings Related to Academic Achievement:
The focus of this analysis was the civic effects of these programs; other effects noted include:
Serve-America study found

• Reduction in absenteeism for high-school and middle school participants
• Increase in homework hours for middle school participants

Learn and Serve study found:

• Positive impacts on school engagement, math and science grades, and core GPA.
• High school students showed positive impacts on school engagement, math and science grades and reduction in course failure.
• Middle school participants saw a positive impact on social studies grades.

ACT program:

• Showed impact at the .10 level on attitudes towards teamwork.

Keywords:
Multiple studies
Surveys

Morgan, W. Evaluation of school-based service leaning in Indiana, 1997-98. Report prepared for Indiana Department of Education.

Abstract:
Results from a study of Indiana's Learn and Serve grantees show service learning to be an effective pedagogical approach by educators that empowers and revitalizes the teachers who use it. It showed positive effects on student grades, attitudes towards school and education, and civic education.

Method:
Analyzes pre/post surveys of 220 service-learning high school students from 19 different classes in total of 10 different schools. Surveys looked at both academic performance and civic engagement as students responded to Likert scale questions and provided specific information (hours of service, number of days skipped, etc.) Teachers filled out a separate survey, providing information about the classes and observed impacts.

Findings Related to Academic Achievement:

• Overall GPAs were seen to improve from about a "B" average to a "B+".
• Students' political knowledge increased (from 70% of asked questions answered correctly before service to 85% after completing service).
• Attendance was noted to improve, and students arrived to class better prepared, were more likely to discuss school out of class, and developed more confidence in public speaking.

Keywords:
Pre/Post Test
GPA
Political Knowledge
Attendance
High School

Santmire, T., Giraud, G. & Grosskopf, K. (April 1999) Furthering attainment of academic standards through service learning. Presented at the National Service Learning Conference, San Jose, CA.

Abstract:
This paper examines a pilot service-learning program in a middle school in a small Midwestern city. Results show service-learning addresses motivational and shared commitment aspects of positive educational environments and knowledge acquisition. Fi

Method:
A core group of teachers designed and planned several service-learning project over the summer months. 7th grade students were randomly assigned to an experimental group or control group. The experimental group (n=117) took part in service learning projects two periods each day for the academic year, and had their traditional "core" subjects reduced by ten minutes of instructional time a day. Those core teachers continued their involvement with the experimental group. Standardized test scores (MAT - Metropolitan Achievement Test) were gathered for all students at the end of their 6th grade year and after their 7th grade year.

Findings Related to Academic Achievement:

• Students from the experimental group showed significantly higher gains than the control group after repeated measures of ANOVA (F=5.63, p>.02)
• Gains on the math portions contributed to most of the overall gain.
• A post hoc analysis of the MAT results of the experimental group showed no difference in gains by quartile (students in the highest quartile gained just as much as the students from the lowest quartile after service learning participation).

Keywords:
Experimental Design
State Assessment
Middle School

Scales, P., Blyth, D., Berkas, T & Kielsmeier, J. (2000, August). The effects of service learning on middle school students' social responsibility and academic success. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20 (3), pp 331-358.

Abstract:
The effect of service-learning on social responsibility and academic success were investigated among a large, racially and socio-economically diverse sample of students in grades 6 through 8 in three middle school. The results indicate that service learning can positively affect students' social responsibility and academic success.

Method:
Schools with quality service-learning programs, large proportions of students engaged in service-learning and an adequate control group, were identified. Sample included 1,153 students in 6th-8th grade from three schools, located in Massachusetts, Missouri and Kentucky. Approximately half of the sample served as control, not taking part in service learning. Various scales and subscales were used to test social responsibility, personal development opportunities, parent involvement, commitment to classwork, engagement in school, perceived scholastic competence, intellectual achievement responsibility, and evaluation and mastery goals. Academic success was measured by GPA and students' conduct was scored. All measures were given at the beginning (pretest) and the end (posttest) of the school year and administered by trained teachers.

Findings Related to Academic Achievement:

• Service-learning students, especially girls, declined significantly less than did controls in their frequency of talking with parents about school.
• Compared with other students, students with substantial hours of service learning, a lot of reflection, and a high degree of motivation attributed to service-learning:
  • significantly increased their belief in efficacy of their helping behaviors
  • maintained their pursuit of better grades
  • maintained their perception that school provided personal development opportunities
  • decreased less in their commitment to class.

Keywords:
Experimental Design
GPA
Student Attitudes
Middle School

Toole, James (April 2000) Implementing service-learning in K-8 schools: Challenging the learning grammar and the organizational grammar of 'Real School'. Presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting, New Orleans, LA.

Abstract:
This paper summarizes a study of 2 schools that were implementing service learning. The author concludes that it is important to make mental models of teaching and learning explicit in order for educators to understand what (and how) changes should occur and to appreciate the value that service-learning can bring.

Method:
The study utilized interviews, focus groups, surveys, and observations during 4 site visits over 3 years. Using a change frame analysis, the author examined structural/organization variables and teacher beliefs to explore differences between schools that implemented service-learning to different degrees.

Findings Related to Academic Achievement:

• Analysis showed service-learning demands structural accommodations such as larger time blocks for activities and field-based learning. Service-learning also appears to require sets of related beliefs about teaching and learning, including the belief that learning is constructed, self-regulated, contextual, and social.
• Teachers who utilize service-learning approaches use more cooperative group work, more student self-assessment, more access to the Internet, more projects that require data collection, and more work in the community than teachers who use traditional pedagogies.
• Service-learning teachers also scored higher on ratings of self-efficacy.
• School structure affected teachers' abilities to operationalize their belief systems. The way the schools organized the "work life" of teachers explained much of the difference that was found.
• Schools with service-learning are more likely to display particular structural characteristics such as joint faculty meetings and planning time, team teaching, and block scheduling.
• Teachers who implement service-learning approaches are more likely to hold a set of interrelated beliefs including learning is constructed, self-regulated, contextual, and social.

Keywords:
Multiple Methods
Beliefs
Elementary/Middle